The Therīgāthā is a collection of poems authored by and featuring the original Buddhist women, who were regarded as "senior ones" or "therīgāthā" on account of their religious accomplishments. It is significant that this compilation dates back to the sixth century BCE because it is the earliest anthology of women's literature that is known to exist. The compositions, known as gāthās, contained within the Therīgāthā, are profoundly personal narratives that chronicle the therīs' enlightenment and spiritual voyages.
The poems in their original form are composed in Pali, a religious and scholastic language that is unique to the Theravāda Buddhist traditions, which are presently established in Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka. During the first millennium, South India witnessed a notable presence of Theravāda Buddhism as well. There are assertions that Pali was once the dialect of a specific ancient Indian region; however, this seems implausible in every way. On the contrary, the Pali language could be considered a "perfected language," having undergone refinement in a manner comparable to that of Sanskrit. While Pali may have originated from a vernacular, it underwent substantial revision and standardisation during the period from the sixth century CE, when Dhammapāla composed his commentary on the Therīgāthā, to the third century BCE, when the final poems of the Therīgāthā were composed.
Dhammapāla, a Buddhist commentator of the 6th century, characterised these poems as udāna, which translates to "inspired utterances," thereby establishing an affiliation with a revered lineage of Buddhist literature. The speaker underscored the fact that an udāna is distinguished by the elation it generates and the knowledge it imparts. The Therīgāthā holds multiple distinctions as the "first": it is considered one of the earliest collections of women's literature worldwide and one of the earliest Buddhist and Indian poetry collections.
The appellation "therī" translates to "senior ones" and exemplifies the reverence bestowed upon these pioneering Buddhist women due to their profound spiritual achievements. The gāthās (verses) are renowned for their profound emotional impact and literary merit, as they effectively communicate intimate and life-altering experiences. Central to Buddhist doctrine, these compositions frequently address the concepts of anicca (impermanence), dukkha (suffering), and nibbāna (enlightenment).
In addition to historical and sociological insights, reading the Thargthā provides substantial literary and emotive profundity. The anthology serves as more than a collection of historical records; it embodies profound manifestations of individual and spiritual metamorphosis. The verses of the Therīs exemplify fundamental Buddhist concepts, including liberation and impermanence, by employing evocative poetic imagery that maintains its enduring impact.
The translation of Therīgāthā: Poems of the First Buddhist Women by Charles Hallisey reinterprets and presents these antiquated poems to contemporary readers, highlighting their literary and aesthetic merit. Hallisey advocates for the reader's recognition and admiration of the Therīgāthā as poetic works, emphasising the continued capacity of these poems to provide novel perspectives and delights, notwithstanding the passage of over two millennia. The author posits that the Thargthā ought to be interpreted not exclusively for its historical significance, but also for its capacity to convey sentiment, imagination, and expression. This translation serves to emphasise its enduring allure. The enduring capacity of the poems to evoke joy and inspiration transcends chronological and cultural boundaries, as evidenced by contemporary interpretations and early German and Bangla translations. Hallisey's body of work upholds this customary approach by encouraging readers to engage with the poems as if they were living works of literature that convey universal sentiments and concepts, thus providing enduring insight and aesthetic delight.
This essay aims to analyse two such poems from the Therīgāthā through a personal and critical lens.
Personal and Critical Engagement:
Vimala (page no. 51)
This poem begins with Vimala confessing her past arrogance and attachment to her physical beauty and social status. This opening stanza sets the tone for the poem, revealing a candid self-assessment. Her pride and sense of superiority over other women highlight the pitfalls of ego and vanity, common human experiences that lead to suffering (dukkha). This is a clear symbol of how vanity can get to one’s head and can have an intoxicating effect on the mind, specifically for a woman who is constantly roped into toxic societal beauty standards around them.
I believe that this is a significant aspect of interpreting this poem. It has modern day relevance as well, because this focus on outer appearances, comparing women to each other, always judging them first on the basis of their appearance, stands strong even today. Beauty synonymously related to white skin has also been prevalent for centuries, and still lies true. Beauty brands capitalising on making women’s skins whiter, and making them more attractive, has been extremely problematic for a while now.
In stark contrast to her former life, Vimala now lives as a bhikkhuni (Buddhist nun), collecting alms with a shaved head and simple robes. The act of collecting alms signifies humility and reliance on the generosity of others, a sharp departure from her previous reliance on manipulation. The mention of sitting at the foot of the tree evokes the image of the Buddha’s enlightenment under the Bodhi tree, symbolising peace and wisdom.
Metaphorically, Vimala's poem can be interpreted as a journey of inner transformation and spiritual awakening. Her initial state of intoxication with her own physical appearance and societal status represents a state of delusion and attachment to worldly concerns. The metaphor of decoration and illusion suggests a superficiality that masks deeper insecurities and discontentment.
However, Vimala's decision to shave her head and renounce her former way of life symbolises a shedding of ego and attachment, reminiscent of the Buddhist concept of renunciation. By collecting alms and adopting the robes of a monk, she embraces a path of humility and spiritual practice, transcending the materialistic desires that once consumed her. This journey from arrogance to humility reflects a deeper engagement with the nature of reality and the pursuit of enlightenment.
In terms of Buddhist women, Vimala's poem resonates with the experiences of enlightened beings described in the Therīgāthā. Like these first Buddhist nuns, Vimala's poem emerges from personal investigation into the nature of reality and direct encounters with experiences of enlightenment. Her inspired utterance serves as a testimony to the transformative power of self-awareness and inner liberation, offering insights that transcend abstract philosophical treatises.
Through the lens of hooks' Engaged Pedagogy, Vimala's poem challenges restrictive critical boundaries that prioritise abstract analysis over personal testimony and lived experience. By foregrounding her own journey of self-discovery and transformation, Vimala invites readers to explore new possibilities for understanding themselves and the world around them.
Moreover, Vimala's narrative exemplifies hooks' assertion that personal testimony and experience form the fertile ground for the production of liberatory feminist theory. Her journey of self-recovery and collective liberation bridges the gap between theory and practice, inspiring readers to translate thought into action in their own lives and communities.
Anopama (page no. 83)
The poem begins with Anopama talking about her upbringing in a wealthy family, which is a clear signal of the fact that she had everything before she went on to have nothing- materialistically speaking. She goes on to mention how just like her name, her physical beauty really was incomparable. Her maidenhood aligned perfectly with the notions of traditional femininity, with eligible suitors (princes, sons of millionaires) trying to pursue her for marriage.
This was until one day, one of these suitors sent her father a message filled with arrogance and dirty pride. He asks her father to ‘give’ Anopama to him in exchange for eight times what she weighs in gold and silver as ‘bride price’. This shook Anopama to the core. She realised that this ‘femininity’ of hers along with her complete identity and existence was a mere commodity and a transaction for men around her. This is a clear depiction of an extremely conventional patriarchal society. It is extremely problematic for one, the decision to marry hasn't been left on her at all. Second, she is reduced to a mere object that can be bought and sold by men around the world, as she is equated with a certain amount of gold and silver and is put a price on. Not only does this reduce her to a commodity, but also questions her entire identity. The fact that such a price is being put on her, the man wants her no matter what and will pay any price to ‘buy’ her, only because of her physical appearance and family background, erratically shocks me. This throws light onto such practices in various cultures where women are simply tokens of exchanges and transactions between men. (here her father and the suitor).
Furthermore, a distinction can be made between an Anopama and a courtesan with regard to the origin of their exploitation, notwithstanding the fact that both are commercialised and objectified. Anopama, who was once ecstatic about the prospect of security and affection, is now disheartened and disillusioned when she is reduced to a bargaining tool in the patriarchal struggle for power and authority. Although identically objectified, courtesans operate within a distinct sphere of influence. As a means of empowering or surviving in a culture that frequently denies women autonomy over their own bodies and destinies, her commercialization is a conscious choice. The degradation of women's autonomy and humanity caused by patriarchal conventions vividly illustrates Anopama's yearning for love.
However, Anopama describes how her encounter with Buddha transformed her existence. She resolved to prioritise her personal growth and pursuit of knowledge over the desires and gratification of the males in close proximity. As an indication that she is willing to relinquish materialistic desires and all earthly delights, she venerates Buddha's feet. In this context, the Buddha, who represents liberation and knowledge, offers Anopama an alternative path to purpose and fulfilment.
Anopama's act of cutting her hair and embracing destitution exemplify her refusal to conform to societal expectations and traditional gender roles.This type of radical self-determination represents a feminist critique of patriarchal systems that seek to subjugate and control women.
Anopama's declaration that her desire has been thwarted signifies her liberation from the societal demands and expectations that have been imposed upon her. This statement represents her celebration of autonomy and resistance against the patriarchal constraints that hindered her in the past. Through her intentional employment of the pronoun "I" and her affirmation of feminine identity, Anopama symbolises the possibility of an illuminated self-definition of liberated femininity. Her narrative presents a captivating exemplification of the subversive capacity of feminism through its interrogation of patriarchal norms and provision of alternative ways of being and acting that prioritise autonomy and agency.
When examined through the lens of Judith Butler's Undoing Gender, Anopama's story becomes evident as a political and potent critique of traditional gender norms. Anopama is a plea by Butler to reject narrowly normative conceptions of gendered and sexual existence by embracing alternative ways of being and rejecting conventional gender norms.
Her experience underscores the importance of maintaining an analytical and innovative stance towards societal norms regarding gender, offering a liberation vision that transcends patriarchal constraints and embraces the entirety of human agency and identity. Anopama is initially portrayed in a manner consistent with traditional gender roles and social conventions. She embodies the quintessence of femininity; endowed with affluence and aesthetic appeal, she is highly regarded for her appearance and actively pursued by potential spouses. However, a pivotal moment occurs when Anopama is reduced to a mere commodity and traded in a transaction where her worth is assessed in relation to material possessions. Patriarchal conventions enslave and objectify women to the needs of men, as this monetization of her identity and existence glaringly demonstrates.
She attains liberation from these restrictive gender norms through her encounter with the Buddha, Anopama. The individual in question contests societal expectations regarding her gender and asserts her autonomy and control over her own existence through the adoption of a spiritual enlightenment vocation and the rejection of societal duties. Her act of cutting her hair and relinquishing her belongings symbolises her resistance against patriarchal norms and traditional gender segregation.
Instead, Anopama institutes an alternative way of being that prioritises spiritual fulfilment and inner freedom over societal conventions.
Through her conscious defiance of normative gender norms and patriarchal structures, Anopama embodies Butler's call for a critical and creative relation to received gender norms. By dismantling restrictive conceptions of sexual and gendered life, Anopama paves the way for greater liveability and freedom for all individuals. Her story serves as a radical and political testament to the transformative power of resistance and subversion in undoing normative gender hierarchies and creating alternative possibilities for gendered existence.
Further analysis:
The narratives of Vimala and Anopama as depicted in Matty Weingast's translation of the Therigatha resonate profoundly with Alfred Adler's perception of the discontentment that pervaded traditional gender roles, particularly among women who opted for unconventional paths away from societal norms. While acknowledging the autonomy and agency of individuals who deviate from these norms, Adler also highlights in Understanding Human Nature the societal pressures that require women to conform to predetermined gender roles.
Vimala and Anopama, two characters from Therigatha, best exemplify Adler's perception of women seeking alternatives to conventional roles. These Buddhist nuns abstain from traditional notions of femininity in favour of lives devoted to spiritual devotion. As evidenced by their prioritisation of celibacy and devotion to Buddhism over societal expectations, they seek autonomy and liberation from patriarchal constraints.
This emancipation and rebellion are embodied in Vimala's poetry in particular. From her early addiction to societal beauty ideals to her ultimate renunciation of materialism and societal conventions, Vimala's journey symbolises the pursuit of spiritual independence and freedom. In a similar vein, Anopama's decision to decline a prestigious matrimonial offer in pursuit of enlightenment exemplifies the profound impact that deviating from societal conventions can have in the pursuit of individual contentment.
The Therigatha translation by Weingast succinctly encapsulates the narratives of Vimala and Anopama under the title "The First Free Women." Through their poetic declarations, these early Buddhist nuns pay homage to the profound liberation and emancipation that ensue from embracing lives devoted to spiritual devotion. Their narratives serve as powerful reminders of the enduring challenge that women have faced in pursuit of autonomy and independence across the annals of time.
